postgresql-table-design

PostgreSQL schema design covering best practices, data types, indexing, constraints, and performance patterns.

- Prioritize normalization to 3NF; denormalize only when join performance is proven problematic and measured for ROI.

- Use BIGINT GENERATED ALWAYS AS IDENTITY for primary keys unless global uniqueness or opacity requires UUID; always add indexes on foreign key columns.

- Choose data types carefully: TIMESTAMPTZ for events, NUMERIC for money, TEXT for strings, JSONB for semi-structured data; avoid TIMESTAMP, VARCHAR(n), SERIAL, and MONEY type.

- Index strategically for actual query patterns: B-tree for equality/range, GIN for JSONB/arrays/full-text, GiST for ranges/geometry, BRIN for large time-series data.

- Partition tables >100M rows by range (time) or hash; use TimescaleDB for time-series automation; separate hot/cold columns and minimize indexes for insert-heavy workloads.

PostgreSQL Table Design

Core Rules

- Define a PRIMARY KEY for reference tables (users, orders, etc.). Not always needed for time-series/event/log data. When used, prefer BIGINT GENERATED ALWAYS AS IDENTITY; use UUID only when global uniqueness/opacity is needed.

- Normalize first (to 3NF) to eliminate data redundancy and update anomalies; denormalize only for measured, high-ROI reads where join performance is proven problematic. Premature denormalization creates maintenance burden.

- Add NOT NULL everywhere it’s semantically required; use DEFAULTs for common values.

- Create indexes for access paths you actually query: PK/unique (auto), FK columns (manual!), frequent filters/sorts, and join keys.

- Prefer TIMESTAMPTZ for event time; NUMERIC for money; TEXT for strings; BIGINT for integer values, DOUBLE PRECISION for floats (or NUMERIC for exact decimal arithmetic).

PostgreSQL “Gotchas”

- Identifiers: unquoted → lowercased. Avoid quoted/mixed-case names. Convention: use snake_case for table/column names.

- Unique + NULLs: UNIQUE allows multiple NULLs. Use UNIQUE (...) NULLS NOT DISTINCT (PG15+) to restrict to one NULL.

- FK indexes: PostgreSQL does not auto-index FK columns. Add them.

- No silent coercions: length/precision overflows error out (no truncation). Example: inserting 999 into NUMERIC(2,0) fails with error, unlike some databases that silently truncate or round.

- Sequences/identity have gaps (normal; don't "fix"). Rollbacks, crashes, and concurrent transactions create gaps in ID sequences (1, 2, 5, 6...). This is expected behavior-don't try to make IDs consecutive.

- Heap storage: no clustered PK by default (unlike SQL Server/MySQL InnoDB); CLUSTER is one-off reorganization, not maintained on subsequent inserts. Row order on disk is insertion order unless explicitly clustered.

- MVCC: updates/deletes leave dead tuples; vacuum handles them-design to avoid hot wide-row churn.